Organizational Training (OT) Category: Process Management
Notes:
·
The contents of this web page were extracted from
the following document: Capability Maturity Model® Integration
(CMMISM), Version 1.1, Continuous Representation,
CMU/SEI-2002-TR-011, March 2002 (CMMI-SE/SW/IPPD/SS). Copyright 2002 by Carnegie
Mellon University. NO WARRANTY.
·
Ignore the identifiers
in square brackets that appear at the end of paragraphs.
·
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·
In the CMMI, a subset is known as a "Process Area
(PA)" and a requirement is known as a "Practice". The specific practices are
referred to as SPs and the generic practices are referred to as GPs.
·
This web page contains the text for SPs and GPs as
it appears in Chapter 7 of the CMMI document, in the section corresponding to
the process area named in the heading of this page. This web page does not
include the detailed description of the GPs that appears in a separate chapter
of the CMMI document; the
detailed description of the GPs is available in a separate web
page. (Note: Using the hyperlink provided here will open that web page in a
separate window.)
Purpose The purpose of Organizational Training is to develop the
skills and knowledge of people so they can perform their roles effectively and
efficiently. [PA158]
Introductory Notes Organizational Training includes training to support the organization’s strategic business objectives and to meet the tactical training needs that are common across projects and support groups. Specific training needs identified by individual projects and support groups are handled at the project and support group level and are outside the scope of Organizational Training. Project and support groups are responsible for identifying and addressing their specific training needs. [PA158.N101]
Refer to the Project Planning process area for more information about the specific training needs identified by projects. [PA158.N101.R101]
An organizational training program involves the following: [PA158.N102]
· Identifying the training needed by the organization
· Obtaining and providing training to address those needs
· Establishing and maintaining training capability
· Establishing and maintaining training records
· Assessing training effectiveness
Effective training requires assessment of needs, planning, instructional design, and appropriate training media (e.g., workbooks, computer software), as well as a repository of training process data. As an organizational process, the main components of training include a managed training-development program, documented plans, personnel with appropriate mastery of specific disciplines and other areas of knowledge, and mechanisms for measuring the effectiveness of the training program. [PA158.N103]
The identification of process training needs is primarily based on the skills that are required to perform the organization's set of standard processes. [PA158.N104]
Refer to the Organizational Process Definition process area for more information about the organization’s set of standard processes. [PA158.N104.R101]
Certain skills may be effectively and efficiently imparted through vehicles other than in-class training experiences (e.g., informal mentoring). Other skills require more formalized training vehicles, such as in a classroom, by Web-based training, through guided self study, or via a formalized on-the-job training program. The formal or informal training vehicles employed for each situation should be based on an assessment of the need for training and the performance gap to be addressed. The term “training” used throughout this process area is used broadly to include all of these learning options. [PA158.N105]
Success in training can be measured in terms of the availability of opportunities to acquire the skills and knowledge needed to perform new and ongoing enterprise activities. [PA158.N106]
Skills and knowledge may be technical, organizational, or contextual. Technical skills pertain to the ability to use the equipment, tools, materials, data, and processes required by a project or process. Organizational skills pertain to behavior within and according to the employee's organization structure, role and responsibilities, and general operating principles and methods. Contextual skills are the self-management, communication, and interpersonal abilities needed to successfully perform in the organizational and social context of the project and support groups. [PA158.N107]
The phrase “project and support groups” is used frequently
in the text of the process area description to indicate an organization-level
perspective. [PA158.N108]
Refer to the Organizational Process Definition process area for more
information about the organization's process assets.
[PA158.R101]
Refer to the Project Planning process area for more information about the
specific training needs identified by projects. [PA158.R102]
Refer to the Decision Analysis and Resolution process area for how to apply
decision-making criteria when determining training approaches.
[PA158.R103]
Specific Goals
SG 1
Establish an Organizational Training Capability
[PA158.IG101]
A training capability that supports the organization's management and technical roles is established and maintained.
SG 2
Provide Necessary Training [PA158.IG102]
Training necessary for individuals to perform their roles effectively is provided.
Generic Goals
GG 1
Achieve Specific Goals [CL102.GL101]
The process supports and enables achievement of the specific goals of the process area by transforming identifiable input work products to produce identifiable output work products.
GG 2
Institutionalize a Managed Process [CL103.GL101]
The process is institutionalized as a managed process.
GG 3
Institutionalize a Defined Process [CL104.GL101]
The process is institutionalized as a defined process.
GG 4
Institutionalize a Quantitatively Managed Process
[CL105.GL101]
The process is institutionalized as a quantitatively managed process.
GG 5
Institutionalize an Optimizing Process [CL106.GL101]
The process is institutionalized as an optimizing process.
Practice-to-Goal Relationship Table
SG 1 Establish an Organizational Training Capability [PA158.IG101]
SP 1.1-1 Establish the Strategic Training Needs
SP 1.2-1 Determine Which Training Needs Are the Responsibility of the Organization
SP 1.3-1 Establish an Organizational Training Tactical Plan
SP 1.4-1 Establish Training Capability
SG 2 Provide Necessary Training
[PA158.IG102]
SP 2.1-1 Deliver Training
SP 2.2-1 Establish Training Records
SP 2.3-1 Assess Training Effectiveness
GG 1 Achieve Specific Goals [CL102.GL101]
GP 1.1 Perform Base Practices
GG 2 Institutionalize a Managed Process [CL103.GL101]
GP 2.1 Establish an Organizational Policy
GP 2.2 Plan the Process
GP 2.3 Provide Resources
GP 2.4 Assign Responsibility
GP 2.5 Train People
GP 2.6 Manage Configurations
GP 2.7 Identify and Involve Relevant Stakeholders
GP 2.8 Monitor and Control the Process
GP 2.9 Objectively Evaluate Adherence
GP 2.10 Review Status with Higher Level Management
GG 3 Institutionalize a Defined Process [CL104.GL101]
GP 3.1 Establish a Defined Process
GP 3.2 Collect Improvement Information
GG 4 Institutionalize a Quantitatively Managed Process [CL105.GL101]
GP 4.1 Establish Quantitative Objectives for the Process
GP 4.2 Stabilize Subprocess Performance
GG 5 Institutionalize an Optimizing Process [CL106.GL101]
GP 5.1 Ensure Continuous Process Improvement
GP 5.2 Correct Root Causes of Problems
Specific Practices by Goal
SG 1 Establish an Organizational Training Capability
A training capability that supports the organization's management and technical
roles is established and maintained. [PA158.IG101]
The organization identifies the training required to
develop the skills and knowledge necessary to perform enterprise activities.
Once the needs are identified, a training program addressing those needs is
developed.
[PA158.IG101.N101]
For Integrated Product and Process Development
Cross-functional training, leadership training, interpersonal skills training, and training in the skills needed to integrate appropriate business and technical functions is needed by integrated team members. The potentially wider range of requirements and participant backgrounds may require relevant stakeholders who were not involved in requirements development to take cross training in the disciplines involved in product design in order to commit to requirements with a full understanding of the range of requirements and their interrelationships. [PA158.IG101.AMP101]
SP 1.1-1 Establish the Strategic Training Needs
Establish and maintain the strategic training needs of the organization. [PA158.IG101.SP101]
Examples of
sources of strategic training needs include the following: [PA158.IG101.SP101.N101]
· Organization's standard processes
· Organization's strategic business plan
· Organization's process-improvement plan
· Enterprise-level initiatives
· Skill appraisals
· Risk analyses
Typical Work Products
1. Training
needs [PA158.IG101.SP101.W101]
2. Assessment
analysis [PA158.IG101.SP101.W102]
Subpractices
1. Analyze the organization's
strategic business objectives and process-improvement plan to identify potential
future training needs. [PA158.IG101.SP101.SubP101]
2. Document the strategic
training needs of the organization. [PA158.IG101.SP101.SubP102]
Examples of categories of training needs include (but are not limited to) the
following: [PA158.IG101.SP101.SubP102.N101]
· Process analysis and documentation
· Engineering (e.g., requirements analysis, design, testing, configuration management, and quality assurance)
· Selection and management of suppliers
· Management (e.g., estimating, tracking, and risk management)
3. Determine the roles and skills
needed to perform the organization's set of standard processes.
[PA158.IG101.SP101.SubP103]
4. Document the training needed
to perform the roles in the organization's set of standard processes.
[PA158.IG101.SP101.SubP104]
5. Revise the organization’s
strategic needs and required training as necessary.
[PA158.IG101.SP101.SubP105]
SP 1.2-1 Determine Which Training Needs Are the Responsibility of the Organization
Determine which training needs are the responsibility of the organization and
which will be left to the individual project or support group.
[PA158.IG101.SP102]
Refer to the Project Planning process area for more information about
project- and support-group-specific plans for training.
[PA158.IG101.SP102.R101]
In addition to strategic training needs, organizational
training addresses training requirements that are common across projects and
support groups. Projects and support groups have the primary responsibility for
identifying and addressing their specific training needs. The organization’s
training staff is only responsible for addressing common cross-project and
support-group training needs. In some cases, however, the organization’s
training staff may address additional training needs of projects and support
groups, as negotiated with them, within the context of the training resources
available and the organization's training priorities. [PA158.IG101.SP102.N101]
Typical Work Products
1. Common
project and support group training needs [PA158.IG101.SP102.W101]
2. Training
commitments [PA158.IG101.SP102.W102]
Subpractices
1. Analyze the training needs
identified by the various projects and support groups.
[PA158.IG101.SP102.SubP101]
Analysis of project and support
group needs is intended to identify common training needs that can be most
efficiently addressed organization wide. These needs-analysis activities are
used to anticipate future training needs that are first visible at the project
and support group level.
[PA158.IG101.SP102.SubP101.N101]
2. Negotiate with the various
projects and support groups on how their specific training needs will be
satisfied. [PA158.IG101.SP102.SubP102]
The support provided by the
organization’s training staff depends on the training resources available and
the organization’s training priorities. [PA158.IG101.SP102.SubP102.N101]
Examples of training appropriately performed by the project or support group
include the following: [PA158.IG101.SP102.SubP102.N102]
· Training in the application domain of the project
· Training in the unique tools and methods used by the project or support group
3. Document the commitments for
providing training support to the projects and support groups.
[PA158.IG101.SP102.SubP103]
SP 1.3-1 Establish an Organizational Training Tactical Plan
Establish and maintain an organizational training tactical plan. [PA158.IG101.SP103]
The organizational training tactical plan is the plan to
deliver the training that is the responsibility of the organization. This plan
is adjusted periodically in response to changes (e.g., in needs or resources)
and to evaluations of effectiveness.
[PA158.IG101.SP103.N101]
Typical Work Products
1.
Organizational training tactical plan [PA158.IG101.SP103.W101]
Subpractices
1. Establish plan content. [PA158.IG101.SP103.SubP101]
Organizational training tactical
plans typically contain the following: [PA158.IG101.SP103.SubP101.N101]
· Training needs
· Training topics
· Schedules based on training activities and their dependencies
· Methods used for training
· Requirements and quality standards for training materials
· Training tasks, roles, and responsibilities
· Required resources including tools, facilities, environments, staffing, and skills and knowledge
2. Establish commitments to the
plan. [PA158.IG101.SP103.SubP102]
Documented commitments by those
responsible for implementing and supporting the plan are essential for the plan
to be effective.
[PA158.IG101.SP103.SubP102.N101]
3. Revise plan and commitments as
necessary. [PA158.IG101.SP103.SubP103]
SP 1.4-1 Establish Training Capability
Establish and maintain training capability to address organizational training
needs. [PA158.IG101.SP104]
Refer to the Decision Analysis and Resolution process area for how to apply
decision-making criteria when selecting training approaches and developing
training materials. [PA158.IG101.SP104.R101]
Typical Work Products
1. Training
materials and supporting artifacts [PA158.IG101.SP104.W101]
Subpractices
1. Select the appropriate
approaches to satisfy specific organizational training needs.
[PA158.IG101.SP104.SubP101]
Many factors may affect the
selection of training approaches, including audience-specific knowledge, costs
and schedule, work environment, and so on. Selection of an approach requires
consideration of the means to provide skills and knowledge in the most effective
way possible given the constraints. [PA158.IG101.SP104.SubP101.N101]
Examples of training approaches include the following:
[PA158.IG101.SP104.SubP101.N102]
· Classroom training
· Computer-aided instruction
· Guided self study
· Formal apprenticeship and mentoring programs
· Facilitated videos
· Chalk talks
· Brown-bag lunch seminars
· Structured on-the-job training
2. Determine whether to develop
training materials internally or acquire them externally.
[PA158.IG101.SP104.SubP102]
Determine the costs and benefits
of internal training development or of obtaining training externally.
[PA158.IG101.SP104.SubP102.N101]
Example criteria that can be used to determine the most effective mode of
knowledge or skill acquisition include the following:
[PA158.IG101.SP104.SubP102.N102]
· Performance objectives
· Time available to prepare for project execution
· Business objectives
· Availability of in-house expertise
· Availability of training from external sources
Examples of external sources of training include the following:
[PA158.IG101.SP104.SubP102.N103]
· Customer-provided training
· Commercially available training courses
· Academic programs
· Professional conferences
· Seminars
3. Develop or obtain training
materials. [PA158.IG101.SP104.SubP103]
Training may be provided by the
project, by support groups, by the organization, or by an external organization.
The organization's training staff coordinates the acquisition and delivery of
training regardless of its source. [PA158.IG101.SP104.SubP103.N101]
Examples of training materials include the following:
[PA158.IG101.SP104.SubP103.N102]
· Courses
· Computer-aided instruction
· Videos
4. Develop or obtain qualified
instructors. [PA158.IG101.SP104.SubP106]
To ensure that internally provided
training instructors have the necessary knowledge and training skills, criteria
can be defined to identify, develop, and qualify them. In the case of externally
provided training, the organization’s training staff may investigate how the
training provider determines which instructors will deliver the training. This
can also be a factor in selecting or continuing to use a specific training
provider.
[PA158.IG101.SP104.SubP106.N101]
5. Describe the training in the
organization's training curriculum. [PA158.IG101.SP104.SubP104]
Examples of the information provided in the training descriptions for each
course include the following: [PA158.IG101.SP104.SubP104.N101]
· Topics covered in the training
· Intended audience
· Prerequisites and preparation for participating
· Training objectives
· Length of the training
· Lesson plans
· Completion criteria for the course
· Criteria for granting training waivers
6. Revise the training materials
and supporting artifacts as necessary. [PA158.IG101.SP104.SubP105]
Examples of situations in which the training materials and supporting artifacts
may need to be revised include the following:
[PA158.IG101.SP104.SubP105.N101]
· Training needs change (e.g., when new technology associated with the training topic is available)
· An evaluation of the training identifies the need for change (e.g., evaluations of training-effectiveness surveys, training program performance assessments, or instructor evaluation forms)
SG 2 Provide Necessary Training
Training necessary for individuals to perform their roles effectively is
provided.
[PA158.IG102]
In selecting people to be trained, the following should be
taken into consideration:
[PA158.IG102.N101]
· Background of the target population of training participants
· Prerequisite background to receive training
· Skills and abilities needed by people to perform their roles
· Need for cross-discipline technical-management training for all disciplines, including project management
· Need for managers to have training in appropriate organizational processes
· Need for training in the basic principles of discipline-specific engineering to support personnel in quality management, configuration management, and other related support functions
· Need to provide competency development for critical functional areas
Deliver the training following the organizational training tactical plan. [PA158.IG102.SP101]
Typical Work Products
1. Delivered
training course [PA158.IG102.SP101.W101]
Subpractices
1. Select the people who will
receive the training. [PA158.IG102.SP101.SubP101]
Training is intended to impart
knowledge and skills to people performing various roles within the organization.
Some people already possess the knowledge and skills required to perform well in
their designated roles. Training can be waived for these people, but care should
be taken that training waivers are not abused.
[PA158.IG102.SP101.SubP101.N101]
2. Schedule the training,
including any resources, as necessary (e.g., facilities and instructors). [PA158.IG102.SP101.SubP102]
Training should be planned and
scheduled. Training is provided that has a direct bearing on the expectations of
work performance. Therefore, optimal training occurs in a timely manner with
regard to imminent job-performance expectations. These expectations often
include the following:
[PA158.IG102.SP101.SubP102.N101]
· Training in the use of specialized tools
· Training in procedures that are new to the individual who will perform them
3. Conduct the training.
[PA158.IG102.SP101.SubP103]
Experienced instructors should
perform training. When possible, training is conducted in settings that closely
resemble actual performance conditions and includes activities to simulate
actual work situations. This approach includes integration of tools, methods,
and procedures for competency development. Training is tied to work
responsibilities so that on-the-job activities or other outside experiences will
reinforce the training within a reasonable time after the training.
[PA158.IG102.SP101.SubP103.N101]
4. Track the delivery of training
against the plan. [PA158.IG102.SP101.SubP104]
SP 2.2-1 Establish Training Records
Establish and maintain records of the organizational training. [PA158.IG102.SP102]
Refer to the Project Monitoring and Control process area for information on
how project- or support-group training records are maintained.
[PA158.IG102.SP102.R101]
The scope of this practice is for the training performed
at the organizational level. Establishment and maintenance of training records
for project- or support-group-sponsored training is the responsibility of each
individual project or support group.
[PA158.IG102.SP102.N101]
Typical Work Products
1. Training
records [PA158.IG102.SP102.W101]
2. Training
updates to the organizational repository [PA158.IG102.SP102.W102]
Subpractices
1. Keep records of all students
who successfully complete each training course or other approved training
activity as well as those who are unsuccessful.
[PA158.IG102.SP102.SubP101]
2. Keep records of all staff who
have been waived from specific training.
[PA158.IG102.SP102.SubP102]
The rationale for granting a
waiver should be documented, and both the manager responsible and the manager of
the excepted individual should approve the waiver for organizational training.
[PA158.IG102.SP102.SubP102.N101]
3. Keep records of all students
who successfully complete their designated required training. [PA158.IG102.SP102.SubP103]
4. Make training records
available to the appropriate people for consideration in assignments.
[PA158.IG102.SP102.SubP104]
Training records may be part of a
skills matrix developed by the training organization to provide a summary of the
experience and education of people, as well as training sponsored by the
organization.
[PA158.IG102.SP102.SubP104.N101]
SP 2.3-1 Assess Training Effectiveness
Assess the effectiveness of the organization’s training program. [PA158.IG102.SP103]
A process should exist to determine the effectiveness of
training (i.e., how well the training is meeting the organization’s needs). [PA158.IG102.SP103.N101]
Examples of
methods used to assess training effectiveness include the following: [PA158.IG102.SP103.N103]
· Testing in the training context
· Post-training surveys of training participants
· Surveys of managers’ satisfaction with post-training effects
· Assessment mechanisms embedded in courseware
Measures may be taken to assess the added value of the
training against both the project’s and organization’s objectives. Particular
attention should be paid to the need for various training methods, such as
training teams as integral work units. When used, performance objectives should
be shared with course participants, and should be unambiguous, observable, and
verifiable. The results of the training-effectiveness assessment should be used
to revise training materials as described in the Establish Training Capability
specific practice above.
[PA158.IG102.SP103.N102]
Typical Work Products
1.
Training-effectiveness surveys [PA158.IG102.SP103.W101]
2. Training
program performance assessments [PA158.IG102.SP103.W102]
3. Instructor
evaluation forms [PA158.IG102.SP103.W103]
4. Training
examinations [PA158.IG102.SP103.W104]
Subpractices
1. Assess in-progress or
completed projects to determine whether staff knowledge is adequate for
performing project tasks. [PA158.IG102.SP103.SubP101]
2. Provide a mechanism for
assessing the effectiveness of each training course with respect to established
organizational, project, or individual learning (or performance) objectives. [PA158.IG102.SP103.SubP102]
3. Obtain student evaluations of
how well training activities met their needs.
[PA158.IG102.SP103.SubP103]
Generic Practices by Goal
(Note: The detailed description of the GPs is available in a separate web page. Using the hyperlink provided here will open that web page in a separate window. However, the GP elaborations pertinent to the process area of this web page are available below.)
GG 1 Achieve Specific Goals
The process supports and enables achievement of the specific goals of the process area by transforming identifiable input work products to produce identifiable output work products.
Perform the base practices of the organizational training process to develop
work products and provide services to achieve the specific goals of the process
area. [GP102]
GG 2 Institutionalize a Managed Process
The process is institutionalized as a managed process.
GP 2.1 Establish an Organizational Policy
Establish and maintain an organizational policy for planning and performing the
organizational training process. [GP103]
Elaboration:
This policy establishes organizational expectations for
identifying the strategic training needs of the organization, and providing that
training. [PA158.EL101]
Establish and maintain the plan for performing the organizational training
process. [GP104]
Elaboration:
This plan for performing the organizational training
process differs from the tactical plan for organizational training described in
a specific practice in this process area. The plan called for in this generic
practice would address the comprehensive planning for all of the specific
practices in this process area, from the establishment of strategic training
needs all the way through to the assessment of the effectiveness of the
organizational training effort. In contrast, the organizational training
tactical plan called for in the specific practice would address the periodic
planning for the delivery of individual training offerings. [PA158.EL102]
Provide adequate resources for performing the organizational training process,
developing the work products, and providing the services of the process. [GP105]
Elaboration:
Examples of
people (full or part time, internal or external), and skills needed include the
following:
[PA158.EL104]
· Subject matter experts
· Curriculum designers
· Instructional designers
· Instructors
· Training administrators
Special facilities may be required for training. When
necessary, the facilities required for the activities in the Organizational
Training process area are developed or purchased.
[PA158.EL118]
Examples of
other resources provided include the following tools: [PA158.EL106]
· Instruments for analyzing training needs
· Workstations to be used for training
· Instructional design tools
· Packages for developing presentation materials
Assign responsibility and authority for performing the process, developing the
work products, and providing the services of the organizational training
process. [GP106]
Train the people performing or supporting the organizational training process as
needed. [GP107]
Elaboration:
Examples of
training topics include the following: [PA158.EL108]
· Knowledge and skills needs analysis
· Instructional design
· Instructional techniques (e.g., train the trainer)
· Refresher training on subject matter
Place designated work products of the organizational training process under
appropriate levels of configuration management.
[GP109]
Elaboration:
Examples of
work products placed under configuration management include the following: [PA158.EL109]
· Organizational training tactical plan
· Training records
· Training materials and supporting artifacts
· Instructor evaluation forms
GP 2.7 Identify and Involve Relevant Stakeholders
Identify and involve the relevant stakeholders of the organizational training
process as planned. [GP124]
Elaboration:
Examples of
activities for stakeholder involvement include the following: [PA158.EL119]
· Establishing a collaborative environment for discussion of training needs and training effectiveness to ensure that the organization’s training needs are met
· Identifying training needs
· Reviewing the organizational training tactical plan
· Assessing training effectiveness
GP 2.8 Monitor and Control the Process
Monitor and control the organizational training process against the plan for
performing the process and take appropriate corrective action.
[GP110]
Elaboration:
Examples of
measures used in monitoring and controlling include the following: [PA158.EL112]
· Number of training courses delivered (e.g., planned versus actual)
· Post-training evaluation ratings
· Training program quality survey ratings
GP 2.9 Objectively Evaluate Adherence
Objectively evaluate adherence of the organizational training process against
its process description, standards, and procedures, and address noncompliance. [GP113]
Elaboration:
Examples of
activities reviewed include the following: [PA158.EL114]
· Identifying training needs and making training available
· Providing necessary training
Examples of
work products reviewed include the following: [PA158.EL116]
· Organizational training tactical plan
· Training materials and supporting artifacts
· Instructor evaluation forms
GP 2.10 Review Status with Higher Level Management
Review the activities, status, and results of the organizational training
process with higher level management and resolve issues.
[GP112]
GG 3 Institutionalize a Defined Process
The process is institutionalized as a defined process.
GP 3.1 Establish a Defined Process
Establish and maintain the description of a defined organizational training
process. [GP114]
GP 3.2 Collect Improvement Information
Collect work products, measures, measurement results, and improvement
information derived from planning and performing the organizational training
process to support the future use and improvement of the organization’s
processes and process assets. [GP117]
GG 4 Institutionalize a Quantitatively Managed Process
The process is institutionalized as a quantitatively managed process.
GP 4.1 Establish Quantitative Objectives for the Process
Establish and maintain quantitative objectives for the organizational training
process that address quality and process performance based on customer needs and
business objectives. [GP118]
GP 4.2 Stabilize Subprocess Performance
Stabilize the performance of one or more subprocesses to determine the ability
of the organizational training process to achieve the established quantitative
quality and process-performance objectives. [GP119]
GG 5 Institutionalize an Optimizing Process
The process is institutionalized as an optimizing process.
GP 5.1 Ensure Continuous Process Improvement
Ensure continuous improvement of the organizational training process in
fulfilling the relevant business objectives of the organization.
[GP125]
GP 5.2 Correct Root Causes of Problems
Identify and correct the root causes of defects and other problems in the
organizational training process. [GP121]